In February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine. That war revived the oldest question of political ethics: when may a state fight?
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Must Know
The Just War Tradition in a Nutshell
Two questions govern the ethics of war
- Ad bellumJus ad bellum asks whether going to war is justified.
- In belloJus in bello asks how the war itself must be fought.
- MeaningAd bellum means “toward war”; in bello means “in war”.
- SeparateThe two questions are judged by separate tests.
Three classic positions on war
- RealismRealism says moral rules do not apply to war.
- PacifismPacifism says war is always wrong and must be refused.
- TraditionThe just war tradition allows war in limited, defined cases.
- MainstreamMost states and legal systems follow the middle view.
Roots of the tradition
- AugustineSt Augustine justified some wars in the fifth century.
- AquinasThomas Aquinas set out the classic criteria in the thirteenth century.
- GrotiusHugo Grotius wrote De Jure Belli ac Pacis in 1625.
- WalzerMichael Walzer revived the tradition in his 1977 book.
The six tests of jus ad bellum
- CauseJust cause: the harm to be stopped must be grave and real.
- AuthorityRight authority: a proper state must make the decision.
- IntentRight intention: the aim must be peace, not revenge or gain.
- Last resortLast resort: every peaceful means must be tried first.
- ProportionProportionality: the good sought must outweigh the harm.
- SuccessReasonable prospect of success: the war must not be hopeless.
The two tests of jus in bello
- DiscriminationDiscrimination: civilians must never be made the target.
- ProportionProportionality: force must match the military objective.
- BannedMeans that are evil in themselves are always forbidden.
- LineCombatants may be attacked; non-combatants may not.
Good to Know
Ethical Dimensions of the Decision to Go to War
Self-defence is the clearest just cause
- Article 51Article 51 of the UN Charter allows self-defence.
- Article 2(4)Article 2(4) forbids the threat or use of force.
- UkraineUkraine’s resistance rests on the right of self-defence.
- UNGAThe UN General Assembly condemned the invasion in March 2022.
- Vote141 member states voted to condemn the aggression.
Testing Russia’s stated causes
- ClaimsRussia cited NATO expansion and the Donbas as its causes.
- TestJust war tests ask whether such claims are grave and true.
- RejectionThe General Assembly rejected these grounds in a strong vote.
- AggressionAggression against a neighbour fails the test of just cause.
Right authority and last resort
- Security CouncilThe UN Security Council authorises most lawful use of force.
- VetoRussia vetoed Security Council action against its own war.
- DiplomacyDiplomacy had not been exhausted when the war began.
- FailureEach failed test weakens the claim of a just war.
Ethical issues in how the war is fought
- LawBoth sides must obey international humanitarian law.
- CostCivilians have died in very large numbers in this war.
- ICCThe International Criminal Court has investigated war crimes.
- LimitProportionality limits the force even a defender may use.
The wider ethical costs
- SpilloverWar spreads harm through hunger, energy and refugees.
- InsecurityThe war worsened global food and fuel insecurity.
- NuclearNuclear threats revived old fears of escalation.
- BurdenEvery dimension asks who bears the human cost.
Test Yourself
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The Tradition in Depth and Its Critics
Walzer’s moral equality of soldiers
- EqualitySoldiers on both sides share equal rights and risks.
- CauseThe justice of the cause does not change a soldier’s duties.
- RulesBoth sides must obey the same rules of combat.
The doctrine of double effect
- CollateralAccidental civilian deaths may be permissible in war.
- TargetThe attack must target a military object, not civilians.
- BalanceThe unintended harm must not outweigh the military gain.
- CareThe attacker must take care to minimise civilian harm.
Supreme emergency
- ExceptionWalzer allowed overriding the rules in a supreme emergency.
- ExampleHe cited Britain’s bombing of German cities in 1940.
- DebateThe doctrine remains fiercely debated by ethicists.
Critics of the tradition
- RealistsRealists dismiss the tradition as naive moralising.
- PacifistsPacifists call even “just” wars a betrayal of non-violence.
- FeministsFeminist scholars say war ethics ignores women’s experience.
- LawyersLegal scholars ask whether any modern war is truly lawful.
New battlefields test old rules
- DronesDrone strikes raise new questions of discrimination.
- AutonomyAutonomous weapons may choose targets without human judgment.
- CyberCyberattacks blur the line between war and peace.
- NuclearNuclear weapons strain every just war criterion.
- R2PThe Responsibility to Protect was adopted in 2005.
- StrangersIt asks when the world may fight to save strangers.
PYQ
Previous Year Questions
UPSC CSM 2022 GS Paper IV, Q5
- UPSC 2022UPSC CSM 2022 GS Paper IV, Q5 — View this question
- AskThe question is about the Russia-Ukraine war and just war principles.
- PlanDefine jus ad bellum and jus in bello, then apply each test.
- TipUse self-defence and the UN Charter to anchor the answer.
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