Which of the following is classified as a "minor mineral" under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957?

Ordinary sand. The correct answer is ordinary sand. Section 3(e) of the MMDR Act, 1957 classifies building stone, gravel, ordinary clay, and ordinary sand as minor minerals. Iron ore, coal, and bauxite are major minerals, regulated mainly by the Central Government. Read more: EnvEco0169 — Minor Minerals: Who Regulates Sand, Gravel, and Stone Mining.

Minor Minerals: Who Regulates Sand, Gravel, and Stone Mining

Most mining leases in India are not for coal or iron ore. They are for sand, gravel and building stone. These are “minor minerals”, and States control most of the rules. UPSC asked about this in 2019, 2020 and 2025.

Sand mining in the Penna River near Siddavattam, Andhra Pradesh. Sand is a “minor mineral” regulated mainly by State Governments. Photo: PJeganathan, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

At a Glance

Four facts to hold on to.

Law

MMDR Act, 1957.

Minor minerals

Section 3(e): stone, gravel, clay, ordinary sand.

Who grants leases

State Governments (Section 15).

Anti-illegal-mining rules

States, under Section 23C.

Minor mineralBuilding stone, gravel, ordinary clay, ordinary sand, and others the Centre notifies.

Major mineralCoal, iron ore, bauxite and other non-minor minerals.

RoyaltyA payment to the government on minerals taken.

Suo motuA court acting on its own, without a petition.

In this lesson

What Counts as a Minor Mineral, and Who Regulates It
Section 15, Section 23C and the Constitution
Previous Year Questions
Reforms and Enforcement

What Counts as a Minor Mineral, and Who Regulates It

Must Know

The law and the definition

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) governs mining in India.
Section 3(e) defines minor minerals.
They include building stone, gravel, ordinary clay and ordinary sand.
Sand used for certain prescribed purposes is excluded from “ordinary sand”.
The Central Government can notify other minerals as minor minerals.
Sources: Arthapedia, minor minerals and the MMDR Act text.

State power, major versus minor

Under Section 15, State Governments make the rules for granting quarry leases, mining leases and other concessions for minor minerals.
Major minerals like coal, iron ore and bauxite are regulated mainly by the Centre.
Minor minerals are left largely to the States.

True or False: Sand, gravel and building stone are all classed as “minor minerals” under India’s mining law.

Section 15, Section 23C and the Constitution

Good to Know

Two powers for the States

Section 15 lets States frame rules for granting concessions in minor minerals.
States also set royalty rates for minor minerals.
Section 23C lets States frame rules to prevent illegal mining, transport and storage of minerals.
This covers penalties and enforcement procedures.
Neither power is shared with the Centre for minor minerals.

Constitutional basis

Entry 23 of the State List covers regulation of mines and mineral development.
It is “subject to” Entry 54 of the Union List.
Entry 54 lets Parliament take control by law where it declares this expedient in the public interest.

True or False: State Governments can frame rules to grant minor-mineral leases and also rules to prevent illegal mining.

Exam Edge

Previous Year Questions

UPSC tested minor minerals three times.

UPSC 2019Three statements. Sand is a minor mineral (true). States can frame rules to prevent illegal mining (true). The third was the incorrect one. The answer is (a) 1 and 3 only. View the question.
UPSC 2025Statement I, that States lack rule-making power under Section 15, is false. Statement II, that the Centre can notify minor minerals, is correct. View the question.
UPSC 2020Which of Bentonite, Chromite, Kyanite and Sillimanite are major minerals? Chromite, Kyanite and Sillimanite are major. Bentonite is minor. The answer is (d) 2, 3 and 4 only. View the 2020 paper.

True or False: UPSC 2025 confirmed that States lack rule-making power over minor minerals under Section 15.

True or False: Chromite, Kyanite and Sillimanite are major minerals, while Bentonite is a minor mineral.

Reforms and Enforcement

Great to Know

Reforms and guidelines

The MMDR Amendment Act, 2015 made auctions the route for major-mineral concessions.
It also created the District Mineral Foundation to support mining-affected areas.
The Environment Ministry issued Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines in 2016.
Stricter enforcement and monitoring guidelines followed in 2020.

The cost of illegal sand mining

Illegal sand mining damages riverbeds and destabilises banks.
It has been linked to organised, sometimes violent, networks.
SANDRP counted at least 11 government officials, 23 citizens and 5 journalists or activists killed since January 2019, in a report dated November 2020.
Source: SANDRP report. The figure is dated.

Supreme Court and the Chambal

The Supreme Court is hearing a suo motu case on illegal sand mining in the National Chambal Sanctuary.
Its order of 17 April 2026 directed CCTV surveillance, GPS tracking of mining vehicles and joint patrols across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
The cases cited include forest guards run over while trying to stop mining vehicles.
Sources: LawBeat and Bar & Bench.

Who administers what

The Ministry of Mines administers the MMDR Act centrally.
States run their own minor-mineral concession rules under it.

Think it through: why is enforcing sand-mining rules more dangerous in practice than the law suggests?

Sand is cheap to mine but valuable in bulk. Construction demand never stops, so illegal extraction pays well. That has drawn organised networks, some of which use violence on guards and police. A rule on paper works only if someone can safely enforce it.

True or False: The Supreme Court has a suo motu case on illegal sand mining in the National Chambal Sanctuary.

True or False: Coal and iron ore are classified as minor minerals under Indian law.

Quick Q&A

Which Act?

MMDR Act, 1957.

Minor minerals defined in?

Section 3(e).

Who grants minor-mineral leases?

State Governments.

Anti-illegal-mining rules?

Section 23C.

Is bentonite major?

No, minor.

0 / 6 correct

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