Science, Technology and Society in India

What was the Green Revolution?

The Green Revolution was a big jump in grain output. It came from new high-yielding seed, along with fertiliser and water. It began with wheat in the 1960s.

India had a hard start. It grew only about 7 million tonnes of wheat in 1947. In the fifties and early sixties it still relied on food-grain imports. A severe drought in the mid-sixties pushed leaders to aim for self-sufficiency.

Science and institutions did the work. The first state agricultural university, G.B. Pant University at Pantnagar, was set up in November 1960. In 1961 a semi-dwarf wheat was spotted at the International Wheat Rust Nursery at IARI, Pusa. It traced back to a Mexican programme led by Norman Borlaug. Borlaug came to India in March 1963 at the request of M. S. Swaminathan. The seeds gave higher yields than any harvested in South Asia until then.

Why does it matter for society? It ended the fear of famine and made food security a national goal. It also tied farming to seed, fertiliser and water. Those inputs cost money, so the gains were uneven across regions.

Exam angle: remember the pairing of Borlaug (seed science) with Swaminathan (who invited him). Questions often ask which crop led the change. The answer is wheat.

Sources: PIB: President on the Green Revolution.

How did science reach child health?

Mission Indradhanush is a vaccination drive. It targets children who have missed vaccines or got only some of them. J P Nadda launched it on 25 December 2014, Good Governance Day.

It covers seven diseases: diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles and hepatitis B. The aim was full immunisation by 2020.

How does it work? The government first finds where the gaps are. In phase 1 it picked 201 high-focus districts. These held nearly half of all unvaccinated or partly vaccinated children. 82 of them lay in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Health workers then ran special campaigns. There were four between January and June 2015. Phase 2 widened the effort to 297 districts. WHO, UNICEF and Rotary International supported it, and it used lessons from the polio programme.

Why does it matter? Coverage had risen only from 61% to 65% between 2009 and 2013. That is about 1% a year. The mission aimed for 5% or more a year. A child who is vaccinated is protected, and so is the whole neighbourhood.

For medicine access, see our Essential Medicines article.

Exam angle: know the launch date, the seven diseases and the 2020 target.

Sources: PIB: Mission Indradhanush.

What did UPI change?

UPI is the Unified Payments Interface. It lets a phone send money straight from one bank account to another. The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) launched it on 11 April 2016.

How does it work? A user links a bank account to a payment app and picks a virtual address. To pay, they enter that address or scan a code. The bank accounts talk to each other through the shared NPCI system. No cash or card changes hands.

Why is it a science and technology story? UPI is built as open public infrastructure. The state and its agencies build the common rails. Many private apps then run on top of them. This is the idea of digital public infrastructure.

What does it mean for society? Small shopkeepers, street vendors and students can take payment with only a phone. Money moves in seconds, at any hour. This also brings new risks, such as fraud and the need for digital literacy.

The same idea of shared national capacity drives the IndiaAI Mission. There the state builds compute and data for others to use.

Exam angle: note that NPCI is the body behind UPI, and that 2016 is the launch year.

What is the ISRO model?

ISRO is India’s national space agency. It is the best example of a state-led science body with public goals. It runs on public money and works for national needs, not for profit.

How does it work? ISRO builds rockets and satellites and runs launches from Sriharikota. Its approach is to keep engineering simple and reuse proven designs. The Mars Orbiter Mission shows this. It was launched on PSLV-C25 on 5 November 2013 and entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. It was India’s first interplanetary mission. Many reports note its cost was far lower than similar missions abroad.

Why does it matter to ordinary people? The INSAT series of satellites supports telecom, TV and weather forecasting. Forecasts help farmers, fishers and cyclone warning. Education and telemedicine satellites have carried classes and medical advice to remote areas. Such uses show space science serving society.

The model is also changing. The Union Cabinet approved IN-SPACe, a body that acts as a single-point interface between ISRO and private firms. NSIL is ISRO’s commercial arm. It aims to scale up industry participation in space programmes. The idea is to let ISRO focus on research and planetary exploration while industry handles routine work.

To read more about a flagship lunar mission, see Chandrayaan-3.

Exam angle: link ISRO to Mangalyaan’s two dates, and know that IN-SPACe and NSIL open the sector to private firms.

What is scientific temper in law?

Article 51A(h) is a fundamental duty. It says every citizen should develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.

What does scientific temper mean? It is a habit of mind. A person with it asks for evidence, tests a claim and changes their view when facts change. It is not the same as having a science degree.

How did it enter the Constitution? The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added the list of fundamental duties. It came into force on 3 January 1977. The original Constitution did not have them.

Is it enforceable? It is a duty, not a right. Courts do not enforce it the way they enforce a fundamental right. It works as a guide for citizens and a standard for policy.

Why does it matter for society? A country can import machines but not the habit of questioning. Scientific temper helps people judge health claims, spot rumours and take part in public debates on technology. It is the base on which the later science policies rest.

Exam angle: the article number is 51A(h), it sits in Part IVA, and it is a duty. Do not call it a directive principle or a right.

Sources: Constitution of India, Article 51A(h).

Where did the idea come from?

The phrase scientific temper became famous through Jawaharlal Nehru. He used and explained it in The Discovery of India (1946).

What did he mean? He saw it as a way of thinking and living. It includes a questioning mind, a search for evidence and a readiness to drop old ideas. He did not see it as a stock of facts to memorise.

How did he try to spread it? He backed new national laboratories, institutes of technology and scientific bodies after independence. For him, science was a way to fight poverty, superstition and old habits. He treated the state as a patron of research.

Why does it matter? The idea links the freedom struggle’s hopes with the later constitutional duty in Article 51A(h). It also shows that science policy in India began with a social vision, not only an economic one.

A common trap is to say Nehru coined the phrase. He used and explained it and made it popular. Treat him as its voice, not its inventor.

Exam angle: link the phrase to the book, the year 1946 and the later duty. Questions often ask which leader is most associated with scientific temper. The answer is Nehru.

Sources: NCERT journal: Nehru and scientific temper.

What did the Scientific Policy Resolution say?

The Scientific Policy Resolution was a policy statement on science. The Government passed it at New Delhi on 4 March 1958.

What did it promise? It aimed to secure for the people all the benefits that scientific knowledge can bring. It wanted to foster and encourage research in every field, pure and applied.

How was it to be done? It set out aims to train scientists in large numbers. It sought to protect academic freedom and give scientists an honoured place in society. It also stressed that the state should support basic research.

Why does it matter? It was among the first formal statements that tied science to national development. Many later bodies and policies built on its ideas. It also shows the state, not the market, as the early driver of science.

Where does it sit on the timeline? It comes first in the line of policy documents: 1958 Resolution, 1983 Technology Policy Statement, 2013 STI Policy. See the timeline above.

Exam angle: remember the year 1958 and the date 4 March. Do not mix it with the 1983 statement, which is about technology and self-reliance.

Sources: DST: Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958.

What changed in 1983?

The Technology Policy Statement came in January 1983. It moved the focus from pure science to technology and self-reliance.

What did it say? It stressed that technology should be suited to local needs. It gave special thought to the weakest sections of society. It also warned against obsolete technology, so that India would not stay stuck with old methods.

How does it differ from 1958? The 1958 Resolution was about building science and scientists. The 1983 statement was about using technology to meet needs and cut dependence on others. The shift matters because it brought in the word self-reliance.

Why does it matter for society? Technology that suits local conditions can serve farmers, artisans and small firms. Imported technology may not. The statement tried to link research to real needs.

It is also the root of later Atmanirbhar thinking. The same idea of cutting import dependence runs through to today.

Exam angle: link 1983 with self-reliance, appropriate technology and avoiding obsolete technology. Questions often ask which policy first stressed self-reliance.

Sources: DST: Technology Policy Statement, 1983.

What came after?

The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy 2013 added innovation to the older science policy. It was unveiled on 3 January 2013. Manmohan Singh released it at the Indian Science Congress in Kolkata.

What was new? The 2013 policy put innovation at the centre. It linked science with the needs of people and with growth that includes all sections. It brought in the word innovation alongside science and technology.

What came next? A draft Science, Technology and Innovation Policy was put out for consultation in January 2021. A January 2026 PIB note says it was only a draft. So no 2020 policy is in force.

Why does this matter? Students often assume the 2020 draft became law. It did not. The STI Policy 2013 remains the last formally announced policy in this line, as the PIB sources say.

What does it mean for society? Policy sets the direction for funding, research priorities and links with industry. A missing final policy does not stop research. But it leaves the direction to schemes and missions instead of one document.

Exam angle: 2013 is the last adopted policy. The 2020 or 2021 text is a draft. This is a favourite trap.

Sources: PIB: STI Policy 2013; PIB: draft STIP, 1 Jan 2021.

More: PIB: Jan 2026 note on STIP.

What is indigenisation?

Indigenisation means building national capacity so that India depends less on imports. It covers things like chips, defence equipment, medicines and software.

How does it work? The state offers incentives, buys from local firms and funds research. Industry builds skills and supply chains at home. Over time, imports fall and local firms learn to compete.

Where does the idea come from? The 1983 Technology Policy Statement set the aim of self-reliance. Atmanirbhar Bharat is the later name for it.

Why does it matter for society? Local capacity creates jobs and keeps essential items available in a crisis. It also gives the country a say in setting standards.

What are the limits? Building everything at home can be costly and slow. Some inputs still need to be imported. Good policy picks the areas where local capacity matters most.

Look at chips and compute for a live test of this idea.

Exam angle: link Atmanirbhar Bharat to the 1983 self-reliance aim. Questions ask for the idea, not the date.

What happened to Bt brinjal?

Bt brinjal is a brinjal plant changed by genetic engineering. It carries a gene from a soil bacterium. The gene helps the plant fight a pest, the fruit and shoot borer.

What happened? The Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, announced a moratorium on Bt brinjal on 9 February 2010. Approval was put on hold.

Why was it paused? The debate was about safety, the effect on farmers and the need for more testing. Scientists, farmers and citizens’ groups took different views. The minister held consultations across the country before deciding.

A moratorium is a pause, not a ban. The crop was not permanently rejected. It was set aside until more studies and public trust could be built.

Why does it matter for society? This is the standard example of society and government pausing a technology. It shows that science decisions also involve public views, not only lab results.

Exam angle: say moratorium, not ban. Know the year 2010, the minister’s name and that the crop is brinjal.

Sources: PIB: Bt brinjal moratorium.

Which GM crop is grown in India?

Bt cotton is a cotton plant carrying a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The gene makes a protein that protects the plant against the bollworm pest.

What is its status in India? Bt cotton, approved in 2002, is the only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation. That is the position stated by PIB in July 2019.

How does it work? The inserted gene makes the plant produce its own protection. Farmers then need less spraying against that pest. The seed, however, costs more.

Why does it matter? Bt cotton is the case that shows both sides. It became widely grown. Yet critics ask about seed prices, pests that adapt and farmers’ costs.

It also sets the legal path. GM crops need approval from the regulators before they can be grown. Other GM food crops have not cleared that path.

Exam angle: Bt cotton is the only approved GM crop. The year is 2002. Do not say Bt brinjal or GM mustard is approved.

Sources: PIB: Bt cotton, 2019.

What about GM mustard?

GM mustard is a genetically modified mustard variety. It was cleared by the regulator for environmental release, which led to a court case.

What did the Supreme Court say? On 23 July 2024, a bench gave a split verdict. One judge held that the approval decision was vitiated. The other upheld it.

What did both agree on? Both asked the Centre to frame a national GM policy. They saw a gap that needed to be filled.

Why does it matter? A split verdict means the matter is not settled by one clear ruling. It goes to a larger bench. The case shows how technology, law and public interest meet.

What does it mean for society? Farmers, consumers and scientists want clear rules. A national policy would say how GM crops are tested, approved and labelled.

Exam angle: the date is 23 July 2024. The verdict was split, not a ban and not a full approval. The call for a national GM policy is the common thread.

Sources: Indian Express: split verdict on GM mustard.

What of AI, surveillance and pseudoscience?

New tools such as AI and facial recognition raise new questions. Who is responsible when a system is unfair? Who owns the data? How much can the state watch?

What are the main issues? Fairness: a system trained on skewed data can treat groups unequally. Privacy: personal data can be collected and used without clear consent. Law: old rules may not fit new tools.

Surveillance is one concern. Cameras and data systems can help in finding crime. But they can also be misused, so safeguards are needed.

Pseudoscience is another. It asks people to trust a claim without testing it. Scientific temper means asking for evidence before accepting a claim.

How should society respond? Set clear rules, test systems, and keep people informed. Citizens need a basic understanding of how these tools work.

Read the Ethics of AI article and the Copyright and AI article for more.

Exam angle: expect ethics questions that ask for balanced views, with both benefits and risks.

Why is 28 February special?

National Science Day is held on 28 February every year. It marks the Raman Effect, found by C. V. Raman. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.

What is the Raman Effect? When light passes through a material, a small part of it scatters with a changed colour. This change tells scientists about the material. The discovery was announced on 28 February 1928.

How is the day used? Schools, colleges and science bodies hold talks, exhibitions and open days. Students show models and meet scientists.

Why does it matter? The day tells young people that science is part of everyday life. It also honours an Indian scientist who did his key work in India.

What does it mean for society? Events like this make science less distant. They help children see careers in research. They also spread the habit of asking questions.

Exam angle: 28 February, Raman Effect, 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics. Questions often pair the day with the scientist.

Sources: PIB: National Science Day.

Who spreads science to the public?

The National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) is a body of the Department of Science and Technology. It serves as the secretariat of the Science Communication Forum.

What does it do? It supports ways of telling the public about science. These include programmes, publications, training and campaigns. The aim is to reach people who may never visit a laboratory.

How does it work? It funds and helps groups, schools and science centres. It brings together bodies that work on science communication so they can share ideas.

Vigyan Prasar is the other well-known body in this field. It also works to popularise science and to produce material for the public.

Why does it matter for society? A public that understands science can judge health, farming and technology choices better. Good communication also fights rumours and pseudoscience.

It links back to scientific temper. A duty to develop a questioning mind needs tools to reach people. Science communication provides them.

Exam angle: NCSTC sits under the Department of Science and Technology. Know the names NCSTC and Vigyan Prasar.

Sources: PIB: NCSTC and the Science Communication Forum.